Despite its strict word order, English uses several emphatic constructions of specific word orders, which have specific stress positions or cause such positions to shift. It also uses focusing adverbs, punctuation, and other stylistic techniques developed specifically for writing that are used to convey emphasis (shown in CAPs below) and emotion, including:
Word order variations, with specific stress positions: declaratives, questions, imperatives, exclamations, clefts, passives, inverted sentences, fronted-object sentences, fragments
Use of conjunctions: asyndetic, syndetic, polysyndetic series
Focus markers: only, just, even, very, the most
Rhetorical adverbs: in short, at last
Discourse connectives: however, therefore
Linguistic politeness markers: formality markers, hedges, softeners, familiarity markers, formulaic expressions
Reduplications: asyndetic and syndetic repetitions
Interjections & Exclamations: oh, oops, wow, ew, ouch, ugh
Punctuation: exclamation point, question mark, dash, suspension points, etc.
► All languages appear to have special sentence structures associated with statements that provide information (declarative sentences), questions that seek information (interrogative sentences), and directives that instruct with information (imperative sentences), and many languages have a special sentence structure for exclamations that signal the emotional reactions (exclamatory sentences). Such structures are largely based on special word orders, and, in combination with the particular punctuation, they can convey the meaning intended by the author:
I have quickly finished reading this fun book. I have quickly finished reading this fun book!
Have you quickly finished reading this fun book? Have you quickly finished reading this fun book?!
Quickly finish reading this fun book! Quickly finish reading this fun book.
How quickly I have finished reading this fun book! How quickly I have finished reading this fun book.
► In English, it-cleft structures have a fixed focus position, marking the delayed subject; wh-cleft structures are used to emphasize the predicate:
It is YOU [that] I love. What we need is MORE TIME.
(S) F B T F
► Anticipatory it and existential there fill the syntactic subject position, drawing attention to the predicative, which is actually the delayed subject. Such structures are often used with indefinite noun phrases, commonly associated with new information:
There is A PLATE FOR YOU ON THE TABLE.
(S) F
► The demonstrative this-clefts, which begin with the demonstrative pronouns this or that, are often used in speech and writing to point to the utterance:
You see that villa? THAT’S what I’d like to buy.
F
► Fronting or inversion topicalizes (makes prominent) the fronted constituent. In canonical sentences, the topic generally bears a neutral secondary stress in a sentence, with the focused position having the neutral primary stress. In noncanonical sentences, however, the fronted topic bears a stronger emphasis, which may be emphatic or contrastive, depending on the context:
T F
Across the field flew a plane. inversion-based topicalization of the adverbial
T F
Which of these calls seemed more mysterious, it is not possible to say. emphatic fronting of the complement clause
James Agee, Let Us Now Praise Famous Men
c-T c-F c-T c-F
Talent, Mr. Micawber HAS; money, Mr. Micawber has NOT. contrastive fronting of the objects
Charles Dickens, David Copperfield
► Passive voice can be used to shift emphasis from topic to focus (or from focus to topic, as it would be in an active version of the sentence):
active voice passive voice
Hurricane damaged MY HOUSE. ⟹ My house was damaged by the HURRICANE.
T F T F
► Deliberate sentence fragmenting is used to emphasize the fragment, underlying its dramatic, surprising, or shocking force:
London.
Charles Dickens, Bleak House (the opening sentence)
Voters who want to vote should be able to vote. Period. Full stop.
― Barack Obama
► Using imperative sentences with explicit periods at the end is an effective attention-getter trick, popular in marketing: e.g., brand taglines, ads, digital copywriting:
Just do it. Think different.
Nike's tagline Apple's tagline
► Focusing adverbs (such as even, only, just, too, ) are used before the words they emphasize:
They’re open even today. Only you, and nobody else, can help me.
► Rhetorical discourse connectives can be used for contrastive (and emphasized) linking if they are sentence-initial or sentence-final or for stressing a preceding word if they are positioned medially. These are always enclosed with commas:
However, they didn’t agree. They didn’t, however, agree.
They, however, didn’t agree. They didn’t agree, however.
This, in short, is why I refused. Sadly, we have failed to save him.
I, too, was not expecting this. They are here, at last!
► Canonically placed adverbs can be emphasized by enclosing commas. When moved to another position, they acquire a rhetorical emphasis:
The soldier must stupidly have answered the officer’s question.
The soldier must, stupidly, have answered the officer’s question.
The soldier must have answered the officer’s question, stupidly.
Stupidly, the soldier must have answered the officer’s question.
► Parallelism is one of the most effective methods of emphasis. It is used to emphasize the likeness or contrast between items. In parallel constructions, emphasis on the individual parallel items can be increased by repeating articles, prepositions, or introductory words:
We have traveled to everywhere: to Paris, London, Moscow, New York, Madrid and so on.
⤷ We have traveled to everywhere: to Paris, to London, to Moscow, to New York, to Madrid and so on.
Teachers need many hours outside of class time to plan new curricula, grade tests and papers, meet with parents, and work one-on-one with children who have special needs.
⤷ Teachers need many hours outside of class time to plan new curricula, to grade tests and papers, to meet with parents, and to work one-on-one with children who have special needs.
He was an extremely, fully, and thoroughly dedicated public servant.
⤷ He was an extremely, a fully, and a thoroughly dedicated public servant.
► Asyndetic, syndetic, or polysyndetic linking styles with repeated elements can be used for different rhetoric effects and to generate emphasis.
Asyndetic style (without using any conjunctions) is more common with attributive adjectives. A comma between asyndetic paratactic (equal, parallel) adjectives can add emphasis to the adjectives as separate modifiers.
The delta function has a long, controversial history.
Her educated, conservative, strict parents found it hard to accept her career choice.
Replacing the comma with the conjunction and further increases this emphasis, marking them as syndetic paratactic adjectives:
The delta function has a long and controversial history.
Her educated, conservative, and strict parents found it hard to accept her career choice.
Moreover, syndetic modification is more appropriate if adjectives come in predicative position.
The men were cold, sick, and silent. You’re like a winter’s day: short, dark, and cold.
If we want to signal in a very literary, even poetic style, we may switch to the asyndetic style with the predicative modifiers:
The men were cold, sick, silent. My soul is exotic, mysterious, incomprehensible.
Polysyndetic linking (using multiple conjunctions) can be employed to emphasize every item in a series:
He can see you on Monday, Tuesday, or Friday. ⟶ He can see you on Monday or Tuesday or Friday.
The men were cold, sick, silent. ⟶ The men were cold, and sick, and silent.
Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers.
U.S. Postal Service creed
► Antithetical contrastive statements and other parallel structures are often used for contrastive emphasis. Although they are typically asyndetic compound sentences, the punctuation mark separating the clauses is not a semicolon, as it should be in compound sentences, but a comma, to signal a closer connection between the clauses:
Not only is he selling out, he’s burning out. Not only was he incompetent, but he was also corrupt.
If not for me, do it for our kids.
► Different kinds of repetitions (reduplications) can be used for intensification of the meaning, reinforcement, or emphasis. Reduplicated words can be linked asyndetically or syndetically:
It’s far, far too expensive. He was a very, very, very wise man.
Interjections repeated may mean hesitation, indicating that the speaker is thinking aloud:
Well, well, we’ll find a way. Now, now, you don’t expect me to believe that!
If linked with coordinating conjunctions, the emphasis is on the high degree of continuity and repetitiveness of the action described:
It went up and up and up. She hit him and hit him and hit him.
He was showing less and less interest in his family. It rained for days and days.
In speech, reduplication is often employed for a dramatic, motivational effect:
The three most important things in real estate are location, location, and location!
Nothing, but nothing will make me change my mind.
► In writing, different punctuation can help distinguish between tag exclamations (right dislocations) and vocatives, which may be structured the same way:
He’s a good guy—John. He’s a good guy, John.
exclamation tag vocative
► Interjections can convey a range of emotions: excitement, surprise, anger, pain, boredom, etc.
Oh! I’ve lost my wallet! Why, I would never do that.
Well, I tried my best. Hey, it’s my turn next!
Whew! That's a relief! Ouch! I think my ankle is sprained!
Ah, to be in Paris in the spring! Psst, let’s skip the next class!
Oops! I nearly dropped my cup of tea! Ugh, it's cold!
Our business proposal was, ahem, poorly presented. Wait, it’s a surprise—ta-da!
Furthermore, punctuation used with interjections can narrow down the emotion behind. For example, compare:
An exclamation expressing the feeling of being amused:
Ha!
An exclamation made unenthusiastically, feeling bored, or in a hurry:
Ha.
► The most “emotional” punctuation marks are question mark and explanation point. The choice of these, as opposed to a period, can signal the emotional charge of the utterance.
For example, imperative sentences written with a period at the end signal their milder nature, unlike imperatives written with an exclamation point, thus marking the directive/instruction vs. order/command distinction or the request vs. plea/entreaty distinction:
Sit down. Sit down!
= directive = command
Stand up and answer the questions. Stand up and answer the questions!
= directive = order
Please help me. Please help me!
= request = plea
► The exclamation point is often used to add exclamatory force to a declarative statement or a rhetorical question (that does not require an answer):
Two million people did not have to die. Two million people did not have to die!
declarative sentence = statement declarative sentence = exclamation
How about that. How about that!
rhetorical question = suggestion rhetorical question = exclamation
Well, what do you know! Why don’t you just go!
rhetorical question = exclamation rhetorical question = exclamation
► Directives can also be mitigated by several expressions that help “soften” the imposition that the directive causes, such as please, excuse me, sorry, come again (used to ask to repeat whatever was said before), I beg your pardon (used to indicate a disbelief). Please is often used in IT in UI (user interface) instructions or developer-facing commands:
Suggestions, please? Please follow the links below for further information.
= neutral/formal request = neutral/formal instruction
More, please! Please wait … The system is rebooting.
= demand = neutral instruction
Would you please keep it down! Please excuse the handwriting.
= angry demand = formal apology
► The punctuation used with some such expressions often determine the meaning of the utterance, from command to neutral instruction to request, to a polite request, to a formal request:
Please, come in. Please? I’ll be quick, I promise. Please! Stop talking!
= neutral/formal request = pleading request = angry request
Excuse me, your honor. Excuse me, Ma'am, can you repeat it? Excuse me! Coming through!
= formal/high deference apology = formal request to repat information = attention-getter
Come again. Maybe tomorrow. Come again? I didn’t hear you. You're welcome to come again!
= neutral/formal invitation = informal invitation = polite/formal invitation
Sorry about that. Sorry, I beg your pardon? I beg your pardon, Sir!
= neutral/formal apology = polite/formal request = formal apology
More examples of the different uses of excuse me:
Excuse me, do you know what time it is? Well, excuse me for wanting to help my own son!
= neutral/formal request = expression of indignation
Oh, excuse me. Was I too loud? Now, please excuse me. I have things to do.
= neutral/formal apology = formal ending of conversation
Excuse me, whom are you here to see? Excuse me? I said, no!
= neutral/formal inquiry = expression of disbelief and indignation
► The second pair of “emotional” punctuation marks are dash and suspension points (ellipsis). Dash generally signals a sharper break from a linear narration. Specific for the English language is the use of a dash to denote an afterthought, break in speech, understatement:
I didn’t believe him—and said so.
There was no other way—or was there?
Our governments want peace—or so they say.
► Enclosing dashes are also used to signal an aside comment, pronounced in a low-key tone:
Geraldine is—as you know—very shy with strangers.
Sue felt—can you blame her?—that she was being exploited.
The manager—but not his deputy—has been charged with defamation.
► Aside comments as parenthetical remarks are generally spoken in a low-key tone, which makes them stand out. In writing, they can be marked with commas, dashes, or parentheses, and the choice of punctuation depends on the nuanced context:
He was an intelligent and demanding boss.
Without any punctuation, it is a neutral sentence.
He was an intelligent, and demanding, boss.
Commas mark an aside comment, which is loosely connected with the sentence.
He was an intelligent—and demanding—boss.
Dashes mark a sharper break and highlight the comment.
He was an intelligent (and demanding) boss.
Parentheses mark a comment that is hardly connected to the main sentence.
► In English, a dash is more informal than other punctuation marks. It is therefore often used in literary works to signal a sharp, dramatic break in one's speech. In the example below, a dash is used to mark interrupted speech, whether by oneself or by others:
“John, do you suppose you could—oh, never mind; I'll do it.”
A waiter held up his hands. “Sir, excuse me—” Vasco knocked him flat, kept right on going.
Michael Crichton, Next
► Ellipsis can be used as suspension points to mark self-interrupted speech, deliberate pause, hesitation, or faltering, trailing off or stuttering.
Along with a single dash, suspension points, too, can mark self-interruption:
He could easily have saved the situation if he just … But why talk about it?
You … you … you monster!
They can also signal trailing off into silence (a rhetorical technique called aposiopesis):
But I thought he meant to help us …
Suspension points can indicate a deliberate pause:
They left … rather quickly.
Or signal a dramatic punchline:
George Bernard Shaw to Winston Churchill: “I am enclosing two tickets to the first night of my new play. Bring a friend … if you have one.” Winston Churchill, responding to Shaw: “Cannot possibly attend first night; will attend second … if there is one.”
The suspension points can also invoke a sense of melancholy or longing, especially if placed at the end of the sentence:
If only we met earlier, before I left …
► An exclamation point can be used at the end of a sentence as well as mid-sentence to mark the emotional charge:
At first things went smoothly, but soon, alas!, the casualties began and we had to devise a new strategy.
► Stammering is sometimes informally indicated by hyphens and reduplication of letters:
“P-p-p-please t-t-try,” his teeth chattered through fear and cold.
► Crying or screaming can be represented by prolongating the vowels using hyphens:
“He-e-elp!” she cried.
► When marking a single word, quotation marks effectively function as the so-called scare quotes. Sometimes called sneer quotes or ironic quotes, these marks are equivalent to the hand gesture in which we draw quotation marks in the air with two fingers when we say something we don't mean literarily or we mean ironically:
A silver dome concealed the robot’s “brain.” Their “friend” brought about their downfall.
► Other specific punctuation patterns, used for many syntactic, pragmatic, and rhetorical purposes, including to organize the text, prevent misreading, make reading easier, and reveal the author’s intended meaning (emotions).
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